高分求英语学年论文《莎士比亚写作的四个阶段》

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高分求英语翻译

The Tempest is the last play of Shakespear,a pretty representative play belonging to the legende dramatique.Prospero is the leading role out of controversy in the Tempest,who owms many identities in the play,acting as King,father,enchanter and so on.Thus polyfunctional role creats the Prospero whom is complicated as well as vivid.We can see the benevolent humanism as well as his colony and enslavement under his benevolent nimbus on him.He is the inconsistent complex whom combine the good and the evil.

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张海迪的故事
悬赏分:0 - 解决时间:2009-4-21 19:26
急用!!!!!!!!!!
提问者: 紫粉anna - 试用期 一级 最佳答案
张海迪,1955年秋天在济南出生。5岁患脊髓病,胸以下全部瘫痪。从那时起,张海迪开始了她独到的人生。她无法上学,便在在家自学完中学课程。15岁时,海迪跟随父母,下放(山东)聊城农村,给孩子当起教书先生。她还自学针灸医术,为乡亲们无偿治疗。后来,张海迪自学多门外语,还当过无线电修理工。 在残酷的命运挑战面前,张海迪没有沮丧和沉沦,她以顽强的毅力和恒心与疾病做斗争,经受了严峻的考验,对人生充满了信心。她虽然没有机会走进校门,却发愤学习,学完了小学、中学全部课程,自学了大学英语、日语、德语和世界语,并攻读了大学和硕士研究生的课程。1983年张海迪开始从事文学创作,先后翻译了《海边诊所》等数十万字的英语小说,编著了《向天空敞开的窗口》、《生命的追问》、《轮椅上的梦》等书籍。其中《轮椅上的梦》在日本和韩国出版,而《生命的追问》出版不到半年,已重印3次,获得了全国“五个一工程”图书奖。在《生命的追问》之前,这个奖项还从没颁发给散文作品。最近,一部长达30万字的长篇小说《绝顶》,即将问世。从1983年开始,张海迪创作和翻译的作品超过100万字。 为了对社会作出更大的贡献,她先后自学了十几种医学专著,同时向有经验的医生请教,学会了针灸等医术,为群众无偿治疗达1万多人次。 1983年,《中国青年报》发表《是颗流星,就要把光留给人间》,张海迪名噪中华,获得两个美誉,一个是“八十年代新雷锋”,一个是"“当代保尔”。 张海迪怀着“活着就要做个对社会有益的人”的信念,以保尔为榜样,勇于把自己的光和热献给人民。她以自己的言行,回答了亿万青年非常关心的人生观、价值观问题。邓小平亲笔题词:“学习张海迪,做有理想、有道德、有文化、守纪律的共产主义新人!” 随后,使张海迪成为道德力量。 张海迪现为全国政协委员,供职在山东作家协会,从事创作和翻译。 [张海迪的故事] [凤凰卫视主持人鲁豫与张海迪的对话——真实美丽张海迪(节选)] 20多年过去了,今年就要47岁的张海迪,在人们心目中的光环似乎渐渐消去。经历了癌症的折磨,爱情婚姻的争议,死亡的挑战,……依然坦然面对鲁豫。她会说些什么…… 张海迪:最早大家知道我的名字的时候,我才26岁,今年就要47岁了,20多年过去了,时间是真的很快,但是当时那些我有时候回想一下,我就觉得像做梦一样,而且想想还是觉得像发生在别人身上的事情。 鲁豫:你还记得当时你被神话的最厉害的那段时间,你大概每天生活是一种什么样的状况? 张海迪:每天生活不得安宁,我当时每天收到的信,都是用麻袋来装的,一麻袋一麻袋的送到我的单位,送到我的家里,那个时候一点没有办法,而且在我家里,就是成批成批的人,有的多则上百,少则几十个,或者是几个人,每天都去,我们一定要见见海迪,我看她一眼行吗? 鲁豫:但是从外人看来,比如从我看来,有一天,张海迪好象就从我的视线消失了,然后就很少听到她的消息。就感觉慢慢地,你不知道你自己主动就淡出我们的视线,还是外界在慢慢远离你。到底是一种双向选择,还是纯属你个人的选择? 张海迪:大概,我觉得是双向,因为首先是我觉得是我个人的。我个人我觉得我应该保持一份清醒的头脑,特别是我选择了这个职业,作为作家,是应该在幕后工作的,而不是在前台。因为我不是一个演员,我不是去演戏,我不需要登舞台,因为我的工作应该是大家看不见的,这是我自己的选择。当大家看不见我的时候,可能正是我在事业的长河里艰难跋涉的时刻。那么在这个宣传媒体上,他们对一个人物的宣传,对我来说,应该是比较长久的了。一直到现在还经常有什么一个版一个版地写海迪了或者是怎么样。但是,当时到了1986年,这个情况会好了一些。 (解说)1991年,张海迪接受医生诊断,得知鼻部患有黑色素癌。于是,她经历了生命中第6次大手术。鲁豫:那手术过程很痛苦吧? 张海迪:非常痛苦,应该说是从剥离到缝合这段时间,因为这么一点点地方,上海最好的医生为我治疗,已经是作了最大的努力,而且这么一点地方缝了四十多针。很小很小的针,虽然那个线很细但对我来说好像是拉一根麻绳。 但是作为一个女性,我觉得,我承受了男性都难以承受的那种痛苦。这种痛苦不仅仅是皮肉的,最重要的是精神的。当时作完手术以后我的手也很凉,也有些颤抖,但是我没有叫一声。我出来的时候,我爱人正在外面等着我,他的手我这么一摸,比我还凉。后来我就跟他讲,我说我有一种感觉,如果我要是在白色恐怖时期被敌人抓了去,我什么也不会说,我说你会说吗,他说我也不说。我说不,你会说。那个时候不能笑了,因为脸上太疼了,不能笑了,但是我自己知道我能够忍受世界上最难以忍耐的痛苦。 鲁豫:你那个时候一滴眼泪都没掉过吗? 张海迪:没有,从小到现在从来没有因为病痛而掉过眼泪。我这个人是非常富有感情的,但是从来没有因为病痛掉过眼泪。总是因为别离,离开了自己亲人,离开朋友,然后什么什么,眼泪汪汪,就这样。大家等一下可以吗,我是看着表上厕所。 鲁豫:我发现海迪身上有一点超出常人,那就是对时间的敏感。由于她从胸部以下,身体完全没有知觉,所以必须非常严格的遵守时间。每隔两个小时,必须要使用一次洗手间,而每一次她并不需要旁人的提醒,也不需要上闹钟,好像身体里面已经有了一个自然的生物钟,到时间就会提醒她。海迪告诉我说,这是她用了40年的时间,养成的一个习惯。 (解说)手术后,张海迪身体状况差到了极点,但她依然坚持就读吉林大学哲学系,攻读研究生课程。两年后,获得学位,成为中国第一位坐着轮椅的哲学硕士。 鲁豫:42年跟疾病一直这样相伴,不知道一种什么感觉,一种什么状态? 张海迪:有的时候我自己想想,偶尔也有热泪盈眶的时候,自己为自己感动。因为什么呢,有的时候,这么想想,哎呀,特别是有时候我跟我妈妈聊起来。有时候就讲说,妈妈你说,我如果当时病了,我坚持十年,二十年,我都可以坚持,三十年我也可以坚持。真的,如果我能够坚持四十年的话,我觉得真的是非常非常不容易,因为我要战胜很多别人根本就看不见的东西。那么就是得克服很多别人根本想象不到的困惑和障碍。 鲁豫:但是你为什么没有放弃呢? 张海迪:没有放弃是,每天都想想放弃,但是每天又把它拾起来。我觉得又把生命的火焰,就是已经将要熄灭的火焰,小心翼翼地,就像我前几天跟他们讲的,我说我自己每天都想放弃,又像一团小火焰一样把它拾起来。这个小火种我吹一吹,我又让它变成我心灵的篝火,越吹越大,越吹越大,让它继续燃烧。 鲁豫:一直以来,张海迪被人们视作英雄式的人物,而在我们心目当中总觉得英雄和常人不一样,不食人间烟火,没有七情六欲。但张海迪和每一个平凡的女性一样,从小就对爱情充满了幻想,充满了追求。当然她品尝过爱情的幸福,也遭受过失恋的打击。不过她说即使翅膀断了,心也要飞翔。 (解说)1970年,张海迪跟随父母,来到山东聊城莘县农村。在那里,少女时代的张海迪情窦初开,有了初恋。 张海迪:有一天我喜欢一个男孩子,那个男孩子非常非常喜欢我,就是在我们那个小小的县城里。但是就是经历了这么几年之后,大概,这个是我没有想到的,有一天就是他忽然带着一个女孩子到我家,一直到现在我都记着那个女孩子。那是个冬天,她穿着一件当时很少见的,因为她从外地来,穿着一件很少见的毛大衣,毛毛领子,是这样子的我就觉得就像冬妮娅穿的那种,那个衣服一样,因为我们那个地方当时很冷的。他进来了以后说,啊,海迪,这是我的表妹。那天还是一起去看电影,他们推着我去看电影,他就告诉我这是他的表妹。 但是当时我非常敏感的就是看了这个女孩子,她真的也非常漂亮,那么健康。就是从这天以后,我的感觉就是,我喜欢的那个男孩子,他真的疏离了我。在这个时候我才感觉到什么呢,我就觉得,真的那个地方太小了,那个我的残疾太重了。那么就是说他在做现实的,和想象中的爱情决择的时候,他必定要偏向社会世俗的一些方面,我能理解。我愿意把这痛苦自己咀嚼掉,我相信到明年的这个时候我就不会痛苦了,果真是这样。 经历了非常大的痛苦。后来以至于于我做什么事情还像以前一样。有的时候我的朋友推我去看电影,去露天剧院去看电影。看电影的时候,我这个朋友去了,我真的很想看看他,很想在看他一眼。但不一定是面对面的,面对面是不可能的,他不敢对我的眼睛,我更不愿意看见他的眼睛,我愿意远远的默默的看一看。后来就是我的朋友推着我,就是走过一个胡同的时候,正好他在胡同紧那头,我这么一看,他跟那个女孩子,就是他的表妹走在一起,我心里当时真的像,你知道吗,什么叫针扎。 鲁豫:我明白那种感觉。 张海迪:我真的知道是针扎的感觉,我们每个女性,我觉得应该经历那样疼痛,爱情真的是,就是像莎士比亚说的,爱情就是让人尝遍天下所有的滋味,如果真的一开始就是甜蜜的话,不经历这种疼痛的话,一个女性她就不是完整的。 鲁豫:那后来呢,除了感情这种疼痛,感觉其他的滋味尝过吗?酸甜苦辣你应该都尝过,包括甜美。 张海迪:甜美的确是有过,这里面还有就是我经历的。像我有一个男性的朋友,当时去看我的时候,他给我留下一句话,让我就想了,就是想了好几年,他说,海迪,他说,等我下次再来的时候,你一定会觉得真的你获得了幸福,就这么一句话,当时我们都非常的隐晦。后来几年之后,他在很远的地方,也是知识青年,在黄河军马场,在那个地方,这件事情我极少跟别人说。过了一些年,有一天他给我寄来一封信,这封存信里面夹了个照片,这个照片看了以后,我接着就撕了。 鲁豫:为什么? 张海迪:因为(照片上)他跟一个女性站在一个台阶上,一个楼房的台阶上,他站的高一点,女性站的低一点。他后面写的什么呢,就是说,海迪,我已经结婚了,我的爱人是做什么什么的。他非常非常平淡的就说这样的话,而且还寄给我这样的照片,我想他很可能期待我的祝福。而他对我来说,就好像一颗子弹,一下子,不说是一颗子弹吧,就像一把利剑一下子扎了我一下,就是那种疼痛就是甚至让我全身都猛的一下子抽搐了,让我就从那个幻梦中一下子回到了现实,并且一瞬间会觉得现实是非常的冷酷,是如此冷酷。我一次一次的追求,一次一次的又失掉了。 (解说)张海迪的丈夫是王佐良,在山东师范大学教外语。两人的结合是在1982年。他们没有举行婚礼,一切都在都在平静中度过,如同现在一样。 鲁豫:记得在90年代初期的时候,报纸上曾经有过一阵子争论,张海迪到底应不应该结婚,对于这些争论张海迪自己是一笑至之,她说早在1982年,她家喻户晓之前,就已经结婚了,经历过将近20年的婚姻生活,我们以外人的角度来看,如果不是那张轮椅,这对夫妇跟中国千百万平凡的夫妇没有太大的差别。 鲁豫:在见张海迪之前,我心里一直有点顾虑,我怕她不愿意谈到自己的情感经历和家庭生活,但海迪非常的坦率,在做这个访问的时候,海迪的先生和妹妹都在家里,海迪也完全不避讳我们,不时指挥自己的老公帮自己垫一下垫子,或者倒一杯咖啡,我能够感觉到海迪是这个家庭的中心,倒不是因为全家人由于她的病情,而要围着她转,而是海迪身上就有这样一种力量,把周围的人凝聚在一起。 (解说)张海迪夫妇没有孩子。10年前,他们收养这只小狗,取名“板凳”。夫妻俩对它疼爱倍至,让人觉得它就是他们的孩子。 鲁豫:关于张海迪,我听到过这样两种声音,有的人说,像她这样一个聪明的有才气的女子,却要承受身体上这么大的痛苦,老天实在是太不公平了。但也有人说,张海迪什么都有了,有名气,有地位,出了那么多书,还要求什么呢。但海迪跟我说,她愿意放弃所有这一切,只希望能有一个健康的,正常的身体。我想这一点普通人是很难理解的。 海迪在一起我们谈到了死亡,我问她如果自己来撰写自己的墓志铭,她会写些什么?海迪说,她会这么写,这里躺着一个不屈的海迪,一个美丽的海迪。
海伦·凯勒的故事
海伦·凯勒(1880-1968)美国著名的聋盲女作家、教育家。她出生后十九从此双目失明,并有聋哑之疾,但以惊人毅力学完小学到大学全部课程。她通晓英、法、德、拉丁、希腊等5种语言,出版了《乐观》、《走向光明》、《我的生活》等14部著作。有的被译成50余种文字,风靡5大洲。1965年,当她85岁高龄时被选为“世界十大女性”之一。

海伦·凯勒于一八八○年出生,一九六八年逝世,活了八十八岁,经历了两个世纪。她出生后十九个月便患了一场猩红热,重病夺去了她的听力和视力,变成又聋又瞎,同时嘴巴也发不出声了。看来这么一个五官三废的一岁半的幼儿一辈子也没有什么希望了。可是世界上也真有奇迹,后来由于她的顽强不屈,刻苦奋斗和她的老师安妮·苏利文小姐教导有方,当然还由于她有出众的天赋,因此她从七岁开始受教育,经过了几年的努力,终于学会了读书和说话。她学懂的文字有英、法、德、拉丁、希腊五种之多,而且知识渊博。她从二十四岁大学毕业后到她逝世这六十多年的期间,她的主要职务是写作和讲演,她跑遍美国各地,周游世界各国,全心全意为聋盲人的教育和福利事业贡献一生,曾受到许多国家的政府、人民和高等院校的赞扬和嘉奖。一九五九年联合国发起“海伦·凯勒”世界运动。

一九○四年,也就是海伦二十四岁的那年,她以优等成绩通过了大学毕业考试。

海伦大学毕业之后,投身于为聋盲人服务的事业,她跑遍全国为聋盲人学校的筹建募集基金。同时她笔不停挥地从事写作。还在大学时代她就写作了著名的《我的生活故事》。以后她陆续写出了《我生活的世界》、《石墙之歌》、《走出黑暗》、《我的老师安妮·苏利文·麦西》、《乐观》、《海伦·凯勒在苏格兰》、《海伦·凯勒:她的社会主义年代》等十四部著作。书中提到的《倘若我能看见三天》是海伦给《大西洋月刊》写的一篇散文。

海伦的一生经历丰富,除了见于她本人的著作之外,别人研究她的著作数以百计。 美国曾出版过著名的传记作家约瑟夫·拉希的一部八百多页的巨著《海伦和老师》,材料最丰富,图片也很多。拉希把老师与学生写在一本书里是很有道理的。安妮当海伦的老师达五十年之久,和海伦结成不解之缘,赢得了“海伦的另一半”的美名。马克·吐温称赞这师徒二人“组成了一个完美无缺的整体”。海伦自己也说:“要是没有老师,我不知道我能做什么。”
江阴吕氏姐妹的故事
吕氏姐妹简介:吕氏姐妹,姐姐吕娟、妹妹吕营。同患《进行性肌肉萎缩》症。此病的发病率只有五万分之零点三。此病的症状是肌肉萎缩、全身无力、棉软如婴儿。生活完全需要别人照顾。
尽管如此,她们俩却从不抱怨命运、不向病魔低头。她们积极乐观地生活。尽管从没进过学校的大门,却自学完了中小学的课程,还自修了大专课程等。
每天,她们只能固定地坐在特制的椅子上,在特制的桌子上学习,一坐就是十几小时。因为没有别人帮助,她们自己就不能躺下,每天冬天脚肿得连鞋子都穿不进去。即使这样,她们也从没放弃对生活的追求。她们阅读了大量的中外名著,写了几万字的读书笔记。她们的文字也经常在各级报刊杂志上发表。她们乐观、进取,热爱生活的态度感染了一批年轻人。经常有人给她们写信、打电话或上门谈心。她们谈理想、谈未来。他们从她们这里吸取生活的信心和力量。受此启发,她们决定开办热心电话,用自己的知识及坎坷的人生来启迪、帮助那些人生迷惘的青年人。
96年7月,她们开办了江阴市首家私人热线电话、《姐妹爱心热线》电话。这条热线受到了青年朋友的欢迎。短短几个月就有杭州、常州、张家港、如皋、镇江等八九个城市的热线电话一千多个。他们涉及的问题有:工作、就业、学习、恋爱、家庭等方方面面。许多人在她们的开导、鼓励、帮助下,摆脱了心理压力,调整了自己的心态、找回了自信,重新愉快地生活和学习了。当有人问她们为什么要这么做时,她们的回答是能够帮助别人,让别人快乐、幸福,才是自己最大的幸福,才能体现出自己的人生价值。现在,她们已接到全国各地的热线电话4000多个。98年,她们还成立了《姐妹爱心服务社》。许多有爱心的朋友常跟她们在一起探讨如何帮助需要帮助的人。现在,她们已帮助八九个贫困学生与有爱心的人士结了对子。她们自己也资助了失学儿童重返校园。现在,她们被十几所学校聘为校外辅导员,被江阴市团市委评为“十大杰出青年”、“优秀青年”、“新长征突击手”等

莎士比亚的戏剧可以分为历史剧、悲剧、喜剧。莎士比亚的历史剧具有史诗的宏大规模,虽然讲的是英国过去的历史,却写出了文艺复兴时期的英国社会和当时人们所关心的问题,并具有鲜明的民族特点。代表作有《理查二世》、《亨利四世》、《理查三世》、《亨利六世》等。莎士比亚的悲剧创作不仅具有深刻的批判性质,而且在当时可能达到的程度上最真实地反映了现实。他创造了一系列令人难忘的艺术形象,他们体现着文艺复兴时期的巨人性格,也反映出作者的理想。

1590年到1600年是莎士比亚创作的早期,又称为历史剧、喜剧时期。这一时期莎士比亚人文主义思想和艺术风格渐渐形成。当时的英国正处于伊丽莎白女王统治的鼎盛时期,王权稳固统一,经济繁荣。莎士比亚对在现实社会中实现人文主义理想充满信心,作品洋溢着乐观明朗的色彩。这一时期,他写的历史剧包括《理查三世》(1592)、《亨利四世》(上下集)(1597—1598)和《 亨利五世》(1599)等9部。剧本的基本主题是拥护中央王权,谴责封建暴君和歌颂开明君主。比如,《亨利四世》展现的是国内局势动荡的画面,贵族们联合起来反叛国王,但叛乱最终被平息;王太子早先生活放荡,后来认识错误,在平定内乱中立下战功。剧作中,历史事实和艺术虚构达到高度统一。人物形象中以福斯塔夫最为生动,此人自私、懒惰、畏缩,却又机警、灵巧、乐观,令人忍俊不禁。
这一时期创作的喜剧包括诗意盎然的《仲夏夜之梦》(1596)、扬善惩恶的《威尼斯商人》(1597)、反映市民生活风俗的《温莎的风流娘儿们》(1598)、宣扬贞洁爱情的《无事生非》(1599)和歌颂爱情又探讨人性的《第十二夜》(1600)等10部。这些剧本基本主题是爱情、婚姻和友谊,带有浓郁的抒情色彩,表现了莎士比亚的人文主义生活理想。与此同时,他还写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》(1595)等悲剧3部,作品虽然有哀怨的一面,但是基本精神与喜剧同。莎士比亚还写有长诗《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》(1592—1593)、《鲁克丽丝受辱记》(1593—1594)和154首十四行诗。
17世纪初,伊丽莎白女王与詹姆士一世政权交替,英国社会矛盾激化,社会丑恶日益暴露。这一时期,莎士比亚的思想和艺术走向成熟,人文主义理想同社会现实发生激烈碰撞。他痛感理想难以实现,创作由早期的赞美人文主义理想转变为对社会黑暗的揭露和批判。莎士比亚创作的第二时期(1601— 1607),又称悲剧时期。他写出了《哈姆莱特》(1601)、《奥瑟罗》(1604)、《李尔王》(1606)、《麦克白》(1606)和《雅典的泰门》(1607)等著名悲剧。《奥瑟罗》中出身贵族的苔丝狄蒙娜不顾父亲和社会的反对,与摩尔人奥瑟罗私下结婚,表现了反对种族偏见的主题,而导致他们悲剧的原因不仅是奥瑟罗的嫉妒,而且是以伊阿古为代表的邪恶势力的强大。奥瑟罗临死前的清醒,包含着人类理性的胜利。《李尔王》中展现的则是一个分崩离析的社会,李尔王因为自己的刚愎自用付出了生命的代价,也给国家和人民带来了巨大的灾难。主人公从具有绝对权威的封建君主变成了一无所有、无家可归的老人,人物命运和性格发生巨大的变化,这在莎士比亚的作品中最具特色。《麦克白》中,一位英雄人物由于内在的野心和外部的唆使,成为个人野心家和暴君。其悲剧意义在于,个人野心和利己主义可以毁灭一个原本并非邪恶的人物。总体而言,这些悲剧对封建贵族的腐朽衰败、利己主义的骇人听闻、金钱关系的罪恶和劳动人民的疾苦,作了深入的揭露;风格上,浪漫欢乐的气氛减少,忧郁悲愤的情调增加,形象更丰满,语言更纯熟。
1608年以后,莎士比亚进入创作的最后时期。这时的莎士比亚已看到人文主义的理想在现实社会中无法实现,便从写悲剧转而为写传奇剧,从揭露批判现实社会的黑暗转向写梦幻世界。因此,这一时期又称莎士比亚的传奇剧时期。这时期,他的作品往往通过神话式的幻想,借助超自然的力量来解决理想与现实之间的矛盾;作品贯串着宽恕、和解的精神,没有前期的欢乐,也没有中期的阴郁,而是充满美丽的生活幻想,浪漫情调浓郁。《暴风雨》(1611)最能代表这一时期的风格,被称为“用诗歌写的遗嘱”。此外,他还写有《辛白林》和《冬天的故事》等3部传奇剧和历史剧《亨利八世》。

William Shakespeare was surely the world's most performed and admired playwright. He was well known in his time, and like many artists his fame continues to grow after his death. His plays dealt with many controversial topics, from racism to witchcraft- perhaps adding to the appeal of his plays in general. Shakespeare led an amazing life for his time, a time when actors and actresses were looked down upon and discriminated. He helped to change this stereotype and altered the world perception of theatre forever. In this report, I will outline many areas of Shakespeare? life, including His birth, marriage and children, parents and family, education, as well as his death.

Birth and early years 1564

William Shakespeare the famous playwright was born in April, 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, about 100 miles northwest of London. According to the records of Stratford's Holy Trinity Church, he was baptized on April 26. It was customary to baptize infants within days of birth, and because Shakespeare died 52 years later on April 23, and-most significantly-since April 23 is St. George's day, the patron saint of England, it has become traditional to assign the birth day of England's most famous poet to April 23 ( Website). As with most sixteenth century births, the actual day was never officially recorded, but along with most remarkable men the power of myth and symmetry has proven irresistible, so April 23 it has become.

Parents and Family

Shakespeare's parents were John and Mary Shakespeare, who lived in Henley Street, in Stratford. John, the son of Richard Shakespeare, was a whittawer (a maker, worker, and seller of leather goods such as purses, belts and gloves) and a dealer in agricultural commodities. He was a solid, middle class citizen at the time of William's birth, and a man on the rise. He served in Stratford government successively as a member of the Council (1557), constable (1558), chamberlain (1561), alderman (1565), and finally high bailiff (1568)--the equivalent of town mayor. About 1577 John Shakespeare's fortunes began to decline for unknown reasons. There are records of some debts he may have had, but of course, none can be verified for certain. In 1586 he was replaced as alderman for shirking responsibilities, and in 1592 was reprimanded for not coming to church for fear of process of debt ( A Documentary).

Mary, the daughter of Robert Arden, had a total of eight children with John Shakespeare. William was the third child and the first son of the family.

Education

Records for the Stratford grammar school from the time Shakespeare would have attended have been lost, but attend he undoubtedly did since the school was built and maintained expressly for the purpose of educating the sons of prominent citizens. The sons of burgesses attended free (Study and research guide).

The curriculum commenced with the hornbook in order to learn the English alphabet, and thereafter was largely devoted to learning the Latin grammar. School began at dawn and proceeded most of the day, with breaks for meals, six days a week. How long Shakespeare attended the school is not known, but from his obvious mastery and love for the Latin authors, the grammar school must have at least begun the process that he later mastered.

No one knows how long Shakespeare remained at the Stratford Grammar School, but Nicholas Rowe reports that ?..the want of his assistance at Home, forc'd his Father to withdraw him from thence.?(Rowe, Some Account of the Life, [2]) (Website). Rowe's source was the actor Thomas Betterton, who made ? journey to Warwickshire on purpose to gather up what remains he could, of a name for which he had so great a veneration (Website).?We cannot be certain, but it would seem likely that William was apprenticed to his father's business in the usual way, perhaps some time around 1577 when John Shakespeare's fortunes seem to take a turn for the worse.

The other significant educational opportunity Elizabethans had was mandatory attendance at church, where they were exposed to either the Geneva Bible or the Bishops' Bible. Church attendance also brought them under the influence of The Book of Common Prayer, Foxe's Acts and Monuments, and homilies and preaching ( Study and research guide).

In any event, part of William's early education must be the ways of business he would have learned around his father's shop. Concerning this period, there is a legend reported in Aubrey's Brief Lives (Aubrey was a seventeenth century gentleman known as a gossip and raconteur--1681) that "...his father was a Butcher, & I have been told heretofore by some of the neighbors, that when he was a boy he exercised his father's Trade, but when he kill'd a Calfe, he would do it in a high style, & make a Speech (Study and research guide)." As unlikely as this behavior seems from someone who shows empathy for animals in his poetry the detail of having been apprenticed to his father may be correct.

Finally, as part of Shakespeare's early education and influences, the Warwickshire countryside cannot be ignored. The plays and poetry are full of images taken from nature, gardening, agricultural pursuits, and country folklore. For example, in Henry V we find this description of the land\

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Shakespeare’s Four Writing Periods

William Shakespeare altered his writing style significantly between his first play (1590-92) and his last (1613). For example, the Shakespeare style of 1590 was somewhat rigid in its adherence to established rules, though it did contain flashes of brilliance that astounded and delighted audiences. The style of the early 1600's, on the other hand, was more creative and free because Shakespeare had learned to listen more to his inner voice and less to the dictates of literary convention. In his later years–in particular when he wrote The Tempest–Shakespeare achieved a writing mastery that confirmed what earlier masterpieces such as Hamlet and King Lear suggested: that he was one of the greatest writers in history.
.......Scholars generally assign each of his plays to one of four periods, depending on the quality and maturity of the writing and characterization. Textbooks classify these as the Early Period, the Balanced Period, the Overflowing Period, and the Final Period. Not everyone agrees on which plays belong to which period. For example, some scholars place Hamlet in the Balanced Period while others place it in the Overflowing Period. Scholars also differ on the period to which The Merchant of Venice belongs. Some place it in the Early Period and others in the Balanced Period.
.......Such disagreement is understandable. After all, literature is not mathematics or physics. In King Lear, 2+2 may equal 7 or 9 in the mind of an old man wrecked by familial perfidy. And in Macbeth, darkness + nightfall may equal sunshine or dawn in the mind of a witch stewing "eye of newt and toe of frog, wool of bat and tongue of frog." The plays and characteristics of the four periods are as follows:

Early Period

Plays: Comedy of Errors, Henry VI Part I, Henry VI Part II, Henry VI Part III, King John, Love's Labour's Lost, Midsummer Night's Dream, Richard II, Richard III, Romeo and Juliet, Taming of the Shrew, Titus Andronicus, Two Gentlemen of Verona.
Style in General: Technically rigid; somewhat immature. The plots generally are well organized.

Characterization: Often superficial or shallow compared with the characterization in later plays. Romeo and Juliet, in which characterization is strong, is an exception.

Dialogue: Sometimes stilted, unnatural. Shakespeare tries hard–maybe too hard–to be consistent in the structure of his lines, making his words fit established conventions rather than making them express the mercurial, inner voice that guided him in later plays. Puns and other rhetorical devices abound, making the wording clever but not always profound. In Richard II, John of Gaunt makes puns even as he is dying. When the king asks how he is, Gaunt uses his name (the same as the adjective gaunt, meaning thin, bony and haggard) in a "punny" reply:
Oh, how that name befits my composition!
Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old,
With me grief hath kept a tedious fast,
And who abstains from meat that is not gaunt?

Balanced Period

Plays: All's Well That Ends Well, As You Like It, Hamlet*, Henry IV Part I, Henry IV Part II, Henry V, Julius Caesar, Measure for Measure*, Merchant of Venice*, Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, Othello*, Troilus and Cressida, Twelfth Night.
Style in General: Less technically rigid; more creative. The plots are generally well designed. Shakespeare demonstrates his range by writing outstanding works in three genres: comedy (As You Like It, Twelfth Night), tragedy (Hamlet, Julius Caesar) and history (Henry IV Part I, Henry V). In addition, he presents a highly tragic character, Shylock, in a comedy (The Merchant of Venice).

Characterization: Strong and rounded, reflecting deep insight into human nature. Among the magnificent character portrayals of this period are those of Hamlet, Macbeth, Shylock, Othello, Iago, and Brutus. In Henry IV Parts I and II, Shakespeare achieves a wonderful balance between the comic (represented by Sir John Falstaff) and the serious (represented by Hotspur and others).

Dialogue: A mixture of verse and prose. Shakespeare also uses the soliloquy as more than a device to disclose the direction of the plot, to present pretty poetry, or to deliver long-winded asides. In Hamlet, Macbeth, and Julius Caesar, for example, soliloquies plumb the depths of the characters' souls, revealing doubt, indecision, fear, and ambition. The "To be or not to be" soliloquy in Hamlet, perhaps the most famous passage in English literature, reveals all of these emotions:
.
Overflowing Period

Plays: King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra, Macbeth, Coriolanus, Timon of Athens
Style in General: Highly creative; bursting with insight. Shakespeare ignores many rules to allow his genius to "overflow." The plots of this period sometimes twist and turn, challenging the reader with their complexity.

Characterization: Superb, deeply insightful

Dialogue: Often highly suggestive of the speaker's state of mind and suffused with memorable metaphors, similes and other figures of speech. Many passages are in prose. The following prose passage in the storm scene in Act III, Scene IV, of King Lear reveals all of these characteristics. Lear is addressing Edgar in the presence of the Fool. After speaking the lines, Lear tears off his clothes.
Why, thou wert better in thy grave than to answer with thy uncovered body this extremity of the skies. Is man no more than this? Consider him well. Thou owest the worm no silk, the beast no hide, the sheep no wool, the cat no perfume. Ha! here's three on 's are sophisticated! Thou art the thing itself: unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor bare, forked animal as thou art. Off, off, you lendings! Come unbutton here.
The Fool then rejoins in prose with a surprising touch of humor and more of the same type of imagery:
Prithee, nuncle [Lear], be contented; 'tis a naughty night to swim in. Now a little fire in a wild field were like an old lecher's heart; a small spark, all the rest on 's body cold. Look, here comes a walking fire. [Gloucester enters with a torch.]

Final Period

Plays: Cymbeline, Henry VIII, Pericles, The Tempest, The Winter's Tale
Style in General: Masterly. Shakespeare has just the right mix of technical skill, creativity, and wisdom while exhibiting hope for flawed humanity. Shakespeare tends to prefer times and places far removed from Elizabethan England–as in The Tempest, Pericles, and Cymbeline–although Henry VIII is certainly an exception here.

Characterization: Several plays of this period–including Pericles, The Winter's Tale, and Cymbeline–introduce characters who suffer loss, then regain what they have lost. Superb, deeply insightful

Dialogue: Highly creative, with many memorable passages in both verse and prose. The following passages, the first in verse and the second in prose, are from The Tempest:

Ariel's Song, Act I, Scene II
.

Full fathom five thy father lies;
Of his bones are coral made;
Those are pearls that were his eyes:
Nothing of him that doth fade
But doth suffer a sea-change
Into something rich and strange.
Sea-nymphs hourly ring his knell

Prospero Speaking to Ferdinand and Miranda, Act IV, Scene I
.

Our revels now are ended. These our actors,
As I foretold you, were all spirits and
Are melted into air, into thin air:
And, like the baseless fabric of this vision,
The cloud-capp'd towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Ye all which it inherit, shall dissolve
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded.

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