德国近代美术史时间分列
西方现存最早的美术史文献始于古希腊人。普林尼的《博物志》 (公元1世纪)以列传体解说名作，与鲍萨尼阿斯的《希腊周游记》 (2世纪)被视为美术史的萌芽。文艺复兴时期G.瓦萨里著《艺苑名人传》为早期较完备的美术史著作，作者被视为美术史之父。他将“产生、完成、衰落”循环这一古代概念引入美术史中。
近代意义的美术史始于德国人 J.J.温克尔曼的《古代美术史》 (1764)。他直接研究遗物，以样式变迁阐明美术史，认为民族、国别、宗教、风土是美术发展的要素。黑格尔以后，美术史争论的焦点是美术样式变迁的原因，一般都将它归结为民族、环境、时代三要素。19世纪，美术史在德国首次列为大学课程。并向深度和广度发展，确立了严密的科学性。
样式史的研究上，沃尔夫林、里格尔有重大发展。相对于样式史而兴起了图像志研究，20世纪初以汉堡为中心获得发展。但样式论和图像志都视美术作品为单纯的记录手段，忽略其审美价值。色多尔马亚以构造分析，尝试判别形式与内涵的分离。第二次世界大战后，帕诺夫斯基、维特的图像学方法，将主题的深刻涵义置于诸人文科学的整体关系中研究。贡布利希的心理学方法吸收了格式塔心理学、精神分析的成果；克拉克寻求超越时代的共同造型精神，试图从作品在历史潮流中的发展和作品具有的超越历史的审美价值的“构造”这两个方面，明确人的创造活动的成果和本质。
DeutscherWerkbund德国工业联盟德国工业联盟是1907年至1934年间以及1950年之后很活跃的一个德国建筑师，设计师，及工业家的协会组织。它的兴起是源于20世纪初德国关于应用美术(appliedart)的目的的激烈争论，发起人包括HermannMuthesius,PeterBehrens,HeinrichTessenow,FritzSchumacher和TheodorFischer。在它的成立章程中说明，德国工业联盟的作用在于‘theennoblingofcommercethroughthecollaborationofart,industryandcraftsmanship,througheducation,propaganda,andaunitedpositiononrelevantquestions’.这个组织带有的国家主义基础(ntaionalisticbasis)也在一开始就非常明确,只有将最好的艺术家和商业人士联合起来才能保证德国文化的发展。虽然建筑师在工业联盟成立之初对于它的早期目标设定有很重要的影响，建筑设计和城市规划在1914年之前的工业联盟中起的作用与之后相比少很多。当时的工业联盟并没有统一的风格和设计哲学。在1914年工业联盟的科隆会议上，Muthesius提出应该提倡以工业生产为目的的标准化设计。虽然这种能被广泛采用的原型设计(archetype)在传统设计中已经发展了很长一段时期，但是他认为在工业时代这种设计应该通过一个更加有意识的设计过程－标准化Typisierung(standardization)－而发展得更快。然而包括HenryVandeVelde,AugustEndell,HermannObrist,GropiusandBrunoTaut在内的其他会员对此表示怀疑，认为Muthesius的提议会影响艺术家的创作自由。这种存在于受尼采精英主义影响的认为自己是美的代言人的艺术家们，和追求更加实际利益的工业家和出口商们之间的矛盾，却由于一战的爆发而停止了。在战后1919年斯图加特的会议上，建筑师HansPoelzig当选为工业联盟的新主席。他在会上提出，与战后的反工业(anti-industrialist)与反资本(anti-capitalist)的情绪相一致，支持手工艺(hand-craftsmanship)而反对工业制造(industrialfabrication)。他受到了激进的表现派的支持－Gropius,CésarKlein,KarlErnstOsthaus,BernhardPankokandBrunoTaut。1920－1923之间持续恶化的通货膨胀使得任何行动都无法实施。1921年Poelzig让位于更加保守的RichardRiemerschmid。而表现派希望通过手工艺运动达到重建目的的愿望也落空了。1923年开始，工业联盟重新找到一个积极的新方向。这期间三个重要的因素在起作用：选定魏玛(Weimar)作为年会召开地点，并且在包豪斯(Bauhaus)举了第一次重要展览；Gropius在此次会议上发表演说，呼吁新的艺术与技术的结合；工业联盟正式与手工业派脱离关系。1924－1929年是工业联盟的鼎盛时期。在其历史上第一次与某个风格－FunctionalismandNeueSachlichkeit－有着强烈的联系，并且开始注重建筑设计和城市规划。1924年建筑师LudwigMiesvanderRohe和HansScharoun都成为其委员会的成员，Mies还于1926年成为副主席。密斯继任者也是一连串的提倡改革的建筑师：HugoHäringandAdolfRadingjoinedin1926,LudwigHilberseimerin1927。这些现代主义(Modernism)的信徒通过工业联盟的期刊，DieForm（在1925－1930年间有很重要的影响）传播他们的思想。另一个主要的宣传媒介是1927年在斯图加特建造的Weissenhofsiedlung白院住宅区，一个未来功能主义Functionalist住宅的典范。总平面是由Mies设计的，包括21座建筑60个住宅单元，由16位建筑师设计：MiesvanderRohe,Gropius,Scharoun,RichardDöcker,Behrens,Poelzig,Hilberseimer,AdolfSchneck(b1883),AdolfRading,BrunoTautandMaxTautfromGermany;J.J.P.OudandMartStamfromtheNetherlands;JosefFrankfromAustria;LeCorbusierfromFrance;andVictorBourgeoisfromBelgium.工业联盟成为新建筑运动NeuesBauen最具影响力的组织不仅在德国甚至在整个欧洲都享有很高的地位。然而它在建筑和工业设计方面的主要成果仍然局限于为精英阶层的服务，对于大规模住宅和大规模工业生产的实践影响仍然很小，工业联盟无法解决它的理性与艺术目标和大众文化需要之间的矛盾。1932年底，德国工业联盟基本已接近死亡。1947年，原工业联盟的一些成员签署了一份宣言，号召通过简单现代的设计而非按照历史原样来重建被战争毁坏的城市和乡镇。1950年，一个国家性的工业联盟重新组建。新建的工业联盟的目标已经超越了原来对于优秀工业设计的推广，而采用了更为直接的政治立场，开始关注城市和国家的未来形式。1957年的在柏林举的Interbau展览是给予联盟的许多建筑师以机会建造现代大规模住宅。
欧洲近代美术史是从浪漫主义开始的，西班牙画家戈雅（Goya）是历史上公认的现代主义的第一人。所以现在把浪漫主义这一时期定位为现代美术的开端。随着第一次工业革命的开始（约1760年至1840年）这也引起了画家与哲学家以及文学家反对工业以及回归自然的声音，还有法国大革命以及其他运动的发生，随之浪漫主义运动也开始了。
德国的浪漫主义（18世纪晚期至19世纪早期）也是对于传统的德国绘画的一个重要的革新时期。
卡斯帕·弗里德里希就是其中的一个重要的画家。
作为一个艺术家，他的主要兴趣是寄情自然，他往往通过象征性和反传统的工作来传达对自然世界一种主观情感化的反应。1920年代，他的画作被表现主义者重新发掘。在1930年代和1940年代初超现实主义者和存在主义者经常从他的画中汲取灵感。
接下来是Nazarene 运动（19世纪早期）
这是一群名叫Nazarene的非常崇尚基督教的画家们发起的运动，他们的目的是复兴基督教艺术的精神性以及虔诚性。
自然主义（Naturalism）
毕德麦雅时期
毕德麦雅时期（德语：Biedermeier）是指德意志邦联诸国在1815年（维也纳公约签订）至1848年（资产阶级革命开始）的历史时期，现则多用指文化史上的中产阶级艺术时期。
在政治背景方面，十八世纪末历经法国大革命、美国革命和拿破仑战争后帝国的瓦解，行保守主义的复辟政权当道[1]。执政者为避免自由思想再度盛行，鼓励人民纵情声乐[1]。然而，同一时期，另一波相对立的政治运动也酝酿已久。这场“革命性变革”以作家格奥尔格·毕希纳、海因里希·海涅等人为代表，史称前三月时期。
在毕德麦雅时期，中产阶级发展出他们的文化和艺术品味，如家庭音乐会、室内设计及时装。在文学方面，以“袭旧”和“保守”为特色；文学家普遍遁入田园诗，或投入私人书写。重要诗人有让·保罗、歌德和约翰·彼得·艾克曼等。
毕德麦雅与19世纪初期德国历史的二个时期有关。首先，随着都市化和工业化的蓬勃发展，新兴中产阶级不断扩大，其生活方式与需求逐渐取代传统贵族品味，成为社会的新主流[2]。舒伯特早期的艺术歌曲便是迎合中产阶级爱好的一例：它不需要艰深的音乐素养，简单地由一架钢琴演奏，呈现此时期艺术逐渐深入普罗大众的生活。
其次，在拿破仑战争落幕后，政治压迫逐渐增强，迫使人民专注于家庭和非政治事务。由于此时期对出版物订有严格的审查制度，毕德麦雅作家主要选取非政治题材，例如历史文学、乡村生活等。受限于政府之下，人们仅能在家中和密友谈论政治。这种氛围直到1848年革命才见转变。
在19世纪后半叶。也有更多的艺术形式的发展。这同于其他欧洲国家同时期艺术形式。
额。。。。资料越查越多＝＝。底下是英文的资料先凑合看着。。。等过两天我整理整理再接着发给你吧。。。
20th century
Even more than in other countries, German art in the early 20th
century developed through a number of loose groups and movements, many
covering other artistic media as well, and often with a specific
political element, as with the Arbeitsrat für Kunst and November Group,
both formed in 1918. By the 1920s a "Cartel of advanced artistic groups
in Germany" (Kartell fortschrittlicher Künstlergruppen in Deutschland)
was found necessary[by whom?].[citation needed]
Die Brücke ("The Bridge") was one of two groups of German painters fundamental to expressionism, the other being Der Blaue Reiter group. Die Brücke was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905 by architecture students who wanted to be painters: Fritz Bleyl (1880–1966), Erich Heckel (1883–1970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884–1976), with Max Pechstein and others later joining.[39] The notoriously individualistic Emil Nolde
(1867–1956) was briefly a member of Die Brücke, but was at odds with
the younger members of the group. Die Brücke moved to Berlin in 1911,
where it eventually dissolved in 1913. Perhaps their most important
contribution had been the rediscovery of the woodcut as a valid medium for original artistic expression.[citation needed]
Der Blaue Reiter ("The Blue Rider") formed in Munich, Germany in 1911. Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin
and others founded the group in response to the rejection of
Kandinsky's painting Last Judgment from an exhibition by Neue
Künstlervereinigung—another artists' group of which Kandinsky had been a
member. The name Der Blaue Reiter derived from Marc's enthusiasm for
horses, and from Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky,
blue is the colour of spirituality—the darker the blue, the more it
awakens human desire for the eternal (see his 1911 book On the Spiritual
in Art). Kandinsky had also titled a painting Der Blaue Reiter (see
illustration) in 1903.[40] The intense sculpture and printmaking of Käthe Kollwitz was strongly influenced by Expressionism,
which also formed the starting point for the young artists who went on
to join other tendencies within the movements of the early 20th century.[41]
Die Brücke and Der Blaue Reiter were both examples of tendency of early 20th-century German art to be "honest, direct, and spiritually engaged"[42]
The difference in how the two groups attempted this were telling,
however. The artists of Der Blaue Reiter were less oriented towards
intense expression of emotion and more towards theory- a tendency which
would lead Kandinsky to pure abstraction. Still, it was the spiritual
and symbolic properties of abstract form that were important. There were
therefore Utopian tones to Kandinsky's abstractions: "We have before us
an age of conscious creation, and this new spirit in painting is going
hand in hand with thoughts toward an epoch of greater spirituality."[43] Die Brücke
also had Utopian tendencies, but took the medieval craft guild as a
model of cooperative work that could better society- "Everyone who with
directness and authenticity conveys that which drives him to creation
belongs to us".[44] The Bauhaus also shared these Utopian leanings, seeking to combine fine and applied arts (Gesamtkunstwerk) with a view towards creating a better society.[citation needed]
Weimar period
Otto Dix, Portrait of the Journalist Sylvia von Harden, 1926
A major feature of German art in the early 20th century until 1933 was a boom in the production of works of art of a grotesque style.[45][46] Artists using the Satirical-Grotesque genre included George Grosz, Otto Dix and Max Beckmann, at least in their works of the 1920s. Dada in Germany, the leading practitioners of which were Kurt Schwitters and Hannah Höch, was centered in Berlin, where it tended to be more politically oriented than Dada groups elsewhere.[47]
They made important contributions to the development of collage as a
medium for political commentary- Schwitters later developed his Merzbau, a forerunner of installation art.[47] Dix and Grosz were also associated with the Berlin Dada group. Max Ernst led a Dada
group in Cologne, where he also practiced collage, but with a greater
interest in Gothic fantasy than in overt political content—this hastened
his transition into surrealism, of which he became the leading German practitioner.[48] The Swiss-born Paul Klee, Lyonel Feininger and others experimented with cubism.[citation needed]
The New Objectivity,
or Neue Sachlichkeit (new matter-of-factness), was an art movement
which arose in Germany during the 1920s as an outgrowth of, and in
opposition to, expressionism. It is thus post-expressionist and applied
to works of visual art as well as literature, music, and architecture.
It describes the stripped-down, simplified building style of the Bauhaus and the Weissenhof Settlement, the urban planning and public housing projects of Bruno Taut and Ernst May, and the industrialization of the household typified by the Frankfurt kitchen. Grosz and Dix were leading figures, forming the "Verist" side of the movement with Beckmann and Christian Schad, Rudolf Schlichter, Georg Scholz (in his early work), Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler, and Karl Hubbuch. The other tendency is sometimes called Magic Realism, and included Anton Räderscheidt, Georg Schrimpf, Alexander Kanoldt, and Carl Grossberg.
Unlike some of the other groupings, the Neue Sachlichkeit was never a
formal group, and its artists were associated with other groups; the
term was invented by a sympathetic curator, and "Magic Realism" by an
art critic.[49]
Plakatstil, "poster style" in German, was an early style of poster design that began in the early 20th century, using bold, straight fonts with very simple designs, in contrast to Art Nouveau posters. Lucian Bernhard was a leading figure.[citation needed]
Art in the Third Reich
Made in Germany (German: Den macht uns keiner nach), by George Grosz, drawn in pen 1919, photo-lithograph 1920.
Main article: Nazi art
The Nazi regime banned modern art, which they condemned as degenerate art (from the German: entartete Kunst). According to Nazi ideology, modern art deviated from the prescribed norm of classical beauty.
While the 1920s to 1940s are considered the heyday of modern art
movements, there were conflicting nationalistic movements that resented
abstract art, and Germany was no exception. Avant-garde German artists
were now branded both enemies of the state and a threat to the German
nation. Many went into exile, with relatively few returning after World
War II. Dix was one who remained, being conscripted into the Volkssturm Home Guard militia; Pechstein kept his head down in rural Pomerania.
Nolde also stayed, creating his "unpainted pictures" in secret after
being forbidden to paint. Beckmann, Ernst, Grosz, Feininger and others
went to America, Klee to Switzerland, where he died. Kirchner committed
suicide.[50]
In July, 1937, the Nazis mounted a polemical exhibition entitled Entartete Kunst (Degenerate art),
in Munich; it subsequently travelled to eleven other cities in Germany
and Austria. The show was intended as an official condemnation of modern
art, and included over 650 paintings, sculptures, prints, and books
from the collections of thirty two German museums. Expressionism, which
had its origins in Germany, had the largest proportion of paintings
represented. Simultaneously, and with much pageantry, the Nazis
presented the Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung (Great German art exhibition) at the palatial Haus der deutschen Kunst (House of German Art). This exhibition displayed the work of officially approved artists such as Arno Breker and Adolf Wissel. At the end of four months Entartete Kunst had attracted over two million visitors, nearly three and a half times the number that visited the nearby Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung.[51]
Post-World War II art
Joseph Beuys, wearing his ubiquitous fedora, delivers a lecture on his theory of social sculpture, 1978
答：第十九章 近代工艺美术 第二十章 现代工艺美术 自第三至第六王朝，奴隶制生产关系进一步在埃及确立，史学界将这一阶段划分为“古王国时期”（约公元前2686—前 2181年）。此时的埃及已成为强大的中央集权的奴隶制国家，社会经济和文化艺术亦有了繁荣发展的局面。手工业进一步从 农业中分离出来，形成冶炼...
答：陈池瑜
答：世界十大最昂贵名画 毕加索的油画《拿烟斗的男孩》以1亿416万美元的天价售出，一举刷新绘画作品拍卖的世界记录，成为目前世界上最昂贵的画。文森特·凡·高1890年创作的《加谢医生的肖像》，在1990年以8250万美元的价格售出。荷兰画家鲁本斯的油画 《殴打婴儿》2002年易主，购买者竟不惜出资7350万欧元。《...
答：浪漫乐派在音乐史上的地位不言而喻,这一时期不但盛产伟大的音乐家,而且音乐体裁空前广泛,出现了诸如无词歌、夜曲、艺术歌曲、叙事曲、交响诗等新颖、别致的形式,是人类艺术史上的一大“宝库”。浪漫主义音乐也是一座桥梁:韦伯接受了格鲁克和莫扎特的传统,传至近代的瓦格纳;舒伯特在器乐方面是贝多芬的继承人,他的浪漫...
答：栗宪庭:中国知识分子的分裂人格 来源: 中外艺术 作者:栗宪庭 几乎没有一个艺术家不强调真诚。然而当我们从一个大时代的整体,宏观地回顾现代美术史时,我们又惊愕地发现,真诚是如此地稀少。栗宪庭 当代
答：历史上一般称欧洲的封建社会为“中世纪”,艺术史上把古罗马以后到文艺复兴前这段时间的西方艺术称为“中古世纪的艺术”,它延续了1200年左右.在中世纪的欧洲,基督教成为封建统治的有力支柱.因此,欧洲中世纪的雕塑主要为基督教服务.中世纪盛期的文化艺术,经历了罗马式时期和哥特式时期.教堂建筑成为当时主要艺术载体,许多...
答：14—16世纪的文艺复兴运动拉开了西方近代美术史的开端,它在很大程度上拉动了整个艺术史的步伐,影响之深,涉及之远,范围之广在艺术发展的长河中都是高高卷起的浪花,闪耀夺目。任何事物的发生都不是独立存在的个体,既不会突然出现,也不会瞬间消失。在整个文艺复兴背后的推手是欧洲封建社会内部出现了资本主义经济的萌芽...
